Main Article Content
Abstract
Currently, as the COVID-19 pandemic continues to spread throughout the world, with over 104 million confirmed cases and more than 2.2 million lives lost as of February 6, 2021, the production and application of antiviral drugs for the treatment of viral diseases have become more critical than ever. Although various countries are using different antiviral drugs for the treatment of COVID-19 patients, none of these drugs have been certified by the World Health Organization as effective. This review article aims to provide an overview of the application of antiviral drugs, their mechanisms of action, and how viruses develop resistance against them.
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References
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- J. Koirala and S. Acharya, “Impact of Novel Corona virus (COVID-19 or 2019nCoV) on Nepalese Economy,” SSRN Electron. J., 2020.
- E. De Clercq, “In search of a selective antiviral chemotherapy,” Clinical Microbial. Rev. 1997
- D. D. Richman and N. Nathanson, "Antiviral therapy, In Viral Pathogenesis: From Basics to Systems Biology: Third Edition, 2016.
- C. Wu, Y. Liu, Y. Yang, P. Zhang, W. Zhong, et al, "Analysis of therapeutic targets for SARS-CoV-2 and discovery of potential drugs by computational methods," Acta Pharm. Sin. B, 2020.
- E. De Clearq, and G. Li “Approved antiviral drugs over the past 50 years," Clinical Microbiol. Rev. 2016.
- M. Lobanovska and G. Pilla, “Penicillin’s discovery and antibiotic resistance: Lessons for the future?," Yale J. Biol. Med, 2017.
- V. M. D’costa, C. E. King, L. K. Kalan, M. Morar, W. W. L. Sung, C. Schwarz, D. Froese, G. Zazula, F. Calmels, R. Debruyne, G. B. Golding, H. N. Poiner and G. D. Wright., "Antibiotic resistance is ancient," Nature. 2011.
- A. E. Fiore, A. Fray, D. Shay, L. Gubareva, J. S. Bresee, and T. M.Uyeki “Antiviral agents for the treatment and chemoprophylaxis of influenza. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices” MMWR. Surveill. Summ. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Report. Surveill. Summ. I CDC, 2011.
- H. F. Gunthard, M. S. Saag, C. A. Benson, C. D. Rio, J. J. Eron, J. E. et al “Antiretroviral drugs for treatment and prevention of HIV infection in Adults: recommendations of the international antiviral society USA Panel," JAMA. 2016.
- F. Dal Pozze, and E. Thirty “Antiviral chemotherapy in veterinary medicine: Current applications and perspectives,” OIE Rev. Sci. Tech., 2014.
- S. A. A. Jassim and M. A. Naji, “A novel antiviral agents: A medical plant perspective," J. of Appli. Microbiol. 2003.
- Milas L, Hersh EM, String fellow DA, Hunter N. Studies on the antitumor activities of pyrimidine-interferon inducers. I. Effect against artificial and spontaneous lung metastases of murine tumors. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1982.
- L. K. Kohn, M. A. Foglio, R. A. Rodrigues, I. M. Sousa. M. C. Martini, et al “In-Vitro antiviral activities of extracts of plants of the Brazilian Cerrado against the Avian Meta-pneumovirus (aMPV),” 2014.
- A. Silva, S. M. Morais, M. M. M. Marques, D. M. Lima, et al "Antiviral activities of extracts and phenolic components of two spondias species against dengue virus," J. Venom. Anim. Toxins, Incl. Trop. Dis., 2011.
- Z. Li, M. Khaliq, Z. Zhou, C. B. Post, R. J. Kuhn, and M. Cushman, “Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of antiviral agents targeting flavivirus envelope proteins," J. Med. Chem., 2008.
- L. C. Norkin, “Virus receptors: Implications for pathogenesis and the design of antiviral agents,” Clinical Microbiol. Rev. 1995.
- E. Filipponi, G. Cruciani, O. Tabarrini, V. Cecchetti, and A Fravolini, "QSAR study and VolSurf characterization of anti-HIV quinolone library," J. Comput. Aided. Mol. Des., 2001.
- G. M. Morris, D. S. Goodsell, M. E. Pique, W. L. Lindstrom, R. Huey, S. Forli, W. E. Hart, S. Halliday, R. Belew, and A. J. Olson "AutoDock Version 4.2-User Guide," Guide, 2010.
- L. Eyer, R. Nencka, E. de Clercq, K. Seley-Radtke, and D. Rzek, "Nucleoside analogs as a reach source of antiviral agents active against arthropod-borne flavivirus,” Antivir. Chem. Chemother., 2018.
- L. P. Jordheim, D. Durantel, F. Zoulim, and C. Dumontet," Advances in the development of nucleoside and nucleotide analogues for cancer and viral diseases," Nature Reviews Drug Discovery. 2013.
- D. Jochmans, "Novel HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitors,” Virus Res., 2008.
- G. Maga, “Reverse Transcriptase,” in Brenner's Encyclopedia of Genetics: 2nd edition, 2013.
- E. J. Arts and D. J. Hazuda, “HIV-1 Antiretroviral drug therapy,” Cold Springer Harb. Perspect. Med. 2012
- J. D. Graci and C. E. Cameron, “Mechanisms of action of ribavirin against distinct viruses," Reviews in Medical Virology. 2006.
- J. J. Feld and J. H. Hoofnagle, “Mechanism of action of interferon and ribavirin in treatment of hepatitis C," Nature. 2005.
- B. E. Gilbert, P. R. Wyde, S. Z. Wilson, and R. K. Robin, "Aerosol and intraperitoneal administration of ribavirin and ribavirin triacetate: Pharmacokinetics and protection of mice against intracerebral infection with influenza A/WSN virus," Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1991.
- R. C. Tam, J. Y. N. Lau, and Z. Hong, "Mechanisms of action of ribavirin in antiviral therapies," Antiviral Chemistry and Chemotherapy. 2001.
- M. P. de B~thune, "Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs), their discovery, development, and use in the treatment of HIV-1 infection: A review of the last 20 years (1989-2009), Antiviral Research. 2010.
- Y. C. Cheng, “Potential use of antiviral L (−) nucleoside analogues for the prevention or treatment of viral associated cancers,” Cancer Letters, Volume 162, Supplement 1, 2001.
- Y. C. Jiang, H. Feng, Y. C. Lin, and X. R. Guo, ‘‘New strategies against drug resistance to herpes simplex virus," International Journal of Oral Science. 2016.
- J. W. Gnann, N. H. Barton, and R. J. Whitley, "Acyclovir: Mechanism of Action, Pharmacokinetics, Safety and Clinical Applications,” Pharmacother. J. Hum. Pharmacol. Drug Ther., 1983.
- D. W. Kimberlin et al., "Safety and efficacy of high-dose intravenous acyclovir in the management of neonatal herpes simplex virus infections," Pediatrics, 2001.
- L. Bocket, Y. Yazdanpanah, F. Ajana, Y. Gerard, N. Viget, A. Goffard, et al. "Thymidine analogue mutations in antiretroviral-naive HIV-I patients on triple therapy including either zidovudine or stavudine,"J. Antimicrob. Chemother., 2004.
- N. Bhana, D. Ormrod, C. M. Perry, and D. P. Figgitt, “Zidovudine: A review of its use in the management of vertically-acquired pediatric HIV infection,” Pediatric Drugs. 2002.
- H. Lin, M. V. Stankov, J. Hegermann, R. Budida, D. D. Panyotova, R. E. Schimidt, and G. M. N. Behrens, "Zidovudine-Mediated Autophagy Inhibition Enhances Mitochondrial Toxicity in Muscle Cells. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2018.
- R. Sun, S. Eriksson, and L. Wang, “Zidovudine induces downregulation of mitochondrial deoxy nucleoside kinases: implications for mitochondrial toxicity of antiviral nucleoside analogs.” Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2014.
- H. Cassim , K. Otwombe, E. Lazarus, A. Liberty, and G. E. Gray, “A retrospective case-cohort study comparing treatment outcomes in abacavir versus stavudine containing first line antiretroviral treatment regimens in children <3yrs old, at a pediatric programme based in Soweto, South Africa”. PLOS ONE 12(7): e0180645
- L. K. Shipton, C. W. Wester, S. Stock, N. Ndwapi, T., I. Thior, A. Avalos, et al “Safety and efficacy of nevirapine- and efavirenz-based antiretroviral treatment in adults treated for TB-HIV co-infection in Botswana”. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2009.
- A. Spaulding, G. W. Rutherford, and N. Siegfried, "Tenofovir or zidovudine in three-drug combination therapy with one nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor and one non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor for initial treatment of HIV infection in antiretroviral-naive individuals," Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 2010.
- A. Violari, F. C. Paed, C. Jane, Sc. D. Lindsey, D. Michael, et al., “Nevirapine versus Ritonavir-Boosted Lopinavir for HIV-Infected Children,” New. Eng. J. Medic. 2012.
- D. A. Steinhauer, "Role of hemagglutinin cleavage for the pathogenicity of influenza virus,” Virology, 1999.
- M. J. Makela et al., "Clinical efficacy and safety of the orally inhaled neuraminidase inhibitor zanamivir in the treatment of influenza: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled European study," J. Infect., 2000.
- S. Kashiwagi, S. Kudoh, A. Watanabe, and I. Yoshimura, “Clinical efficacy and safety of the selective oral neuraminidase inhibitor oseltamivir in treating acute influenza--placebo-controlled double-blind multicenter phase III trial," Kansenshogaku Zasshi., 2000.
- N. S. Lurain and S. Chou, “Antiviral drug resistance of human cytomegalovirus," Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 2010.
- D. D. Richman, “Antiviral drug resistance," Antiviral Research. 2006.
- M. Lipsitch, T. Cohen, M. Murray, and B. R. Levin, "Antiviral resistance and the control of pandemic influenza," PLoS Med., 2007.
- S. Adamson, "Antiviral agents: Discovery to resistance,” Viruses. 2020.
- K. Rangasamy, A. Murugan, N. Devarajan, and J. A. Parray, "Emergence of multi drug resistance among soil bacteria exposing to insecticides," Microb. Pathog., 2017.
- P. Agnew, C. Berticat, S. Bedhomme, C. Sidobre, and Y. Michalakis, "Parasitism increases and decreases the costs of insecticide resistance in mosquitoes," Evolution (N. Y). 2004.
- A. J. Guseman, et al., "Multi-drug resistance transporters and a mechanism-based strategy for assessing risks of pesticide combinations to honey bees,” PLoS One, 2016.
- M. Ishizuka et al., “Pesticide resistance in wild mammals- mechanisms of anticoagulant resistance in wild rodents,” Journal of Toxicological Sciences. 2008.
- E. Domingo, L. Menendez-Arias, and J. J. Holland, “RNA virus fitness,” Reviews in Medical Virology.1997.
- R. W. Shafer, "Genotypic testing for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 drug resistance,” Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 2002.
- L. Doyon, G. Croteau, D. Thibeault, F. Poulin, L. Pilote, and D. Lamarre, “Second locus involved in human immunodeficiency virus type I resistance to protease inhibitors." J. Virol., 1996
- R. Kuritzkes, “Drug resistance in HIV- I,” Current Opinion in Virology, 2011.
References
K. B. Patterson and T. Runge, "Smallpox and the Native American,” American. Journal of the Medic. Sci. 2002.
J. Koirala and S. Acharya, “Impact of Novel Corona virus (COVID-19 or 2019nCoV) on Nepalese Economy,” SSRN Electron. J., 2020.
E. De Clercq, “In search of a selective antiviral chemotherapy,” Clinical Microbial. Rev. 1997
D. D. Richman and N. Nathanson, "Antiviral therapy, In Viral Pathogenesis: From Basics to Systems Biology: Third Edition, 2016.
C. Wu, Y. Liu, Y. Yang, P. Zhang, W. Zhong, et al, "Analysis of therapeutic targets for SARS-CoV-2 and discovery of potential drugs by computational methods," Acta Pharm. Sin. B, 2020.
E. De Clearq, and G. Li “Approved antiviral drugs over the past 50 years," Clinical Microbiol. Rev. 2016.
M. Lobanovska and G. Pilla, “Penicillin’s discovery and antibiotic resistance: Lessons for the future?," Yale J. Biol. Med, 2017.
V. M. D’costa, C. E. King, L. K. Kalan, M. Morar, W. W. L. Sung, C. Schwarz, D. Froese, G. Zazula, F. Calmels, R. Debruyne, G. B. Golding, H. N. Poiner and G. D. Wright., "Antibiotic resistance is ancient," Nature. 2011.
A. E. Fiore, A. Fray, D. Shay, L. Gubareva, J. S. Bresee, and T. M.Uyeki “Antiviral agents for the treatment and chemoprophylaxis of influenza. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices” MMWR. Surveill. Summ. Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Report. Surveill. Summ. I CDC, 2011.
H. F. Gunthard, M. S. Saag, C. A. Benson, C. D. Rio, J. J. Eron, J. E. et al “Antiretroviral drugs for treatment and prevention of HIV infection in Adults: recommendations of the international antiviral society USA Panel," JAMA. 2016.
F. Dal Pozze, and E. Thirty “Antiviral chemotherapy in veterinary medicine: Current applications and perspectives,” OIE Rev. Sci. Tech., 2014.
S. A. A. Jassim and M. A. Naji, “A novel antiviral agents: A medical plant perspective," J. of Appli. Microbiol. 2003.
Milas L, Hersh EM, String fellow DA, Hunter N. Studies on the antitumor activities of pyrimidine-interferon inducers. I. Effect against artificial and spontaneous lung metastases of murine tumors. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1982.
L. K. Kohn, M. A. Foglio, R. A. Rodrigues, I. M. Sousa. M. C. Martini, et al “In-Vitro antiviral activities of extracts of plants of the Brazilian Cerrado against the Avian Meta-pneumovirus (aMPV),” 2014.
A. Silva, S. M. Morais, M. M. M. Marques, D. M. Lima, et al "Antiviral activities of extracts and phenolic components of two spondias species against dengue virus," J. Venom. Anim. Toxins, Incl. Trop. Dis., 2011.
Z. Li, M. Khaliq, Z. Zhou, C. B. Post, R. J. Kuhn, and M. Cushman, “Design, synthesis, and biological evaluation of antiviral agents targeting flavivirus envelope proteins," J. Med. Chem., 2008.
L. C. Norkin, “Virus receptors: Implications for pathogenesis and the design of antiviral agents,” Clinical Microbiol. Rev. 1995.
E. Filipponi, G. Cruciani, O. Tabarrini, V. Cecchetti, and A Fravolini, "QSAR study and VolSurf characterization of anti-HIV quinolone library," J. Comput. Aided. Mol. Des., 2001.
G. M. Morris, D. S. Goodsell, M. E. Pique, W. L. Lindstrom, R. Huey, S. Forli, W. E. Hart, S. Halliday, R. Belew, and A. J. Olson "AutoDock Version 4.2-User Guide," Guide, 2010.
L. Eyer, R. Nencka, E. de Clercq, K. Seley-Radtke, and D. Rzek, "Nucleoside analogs as a reach source of antiviral agents active against arthropod-borne flavivirus,” Antivir. Chem. Chemother., 2018.
L. P. Jordheim, D. Durantel, F. Zoulim, and C. Dumontet," Advances in the development of nucleoside and nucleotide analogues for cancer and viral diseases," Nature Reviews Drug Discovery. 2013.
D. Jochmans, "Novel HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitors,” Virus Res., 2008.
G. Maga, “Reverse Transcriptase,” in Brenner's Encyclopedia of Genetics: 2nd edition, 2013.
E. J. Arts and D. J. Hazuda, “HIV-1 Antiretroviral drug therapy,” Cold Springer Harb. Perspect. Med. 2012
J. D. Graci and C. E. Cameron, “Mechanisms of action of ribavirin against distinct viruses," Reviews in Medical Virology. 2006.
J. J. Feld and J. H. Hoofnagle, “Mechanism of action of interferon and ribavirin in treatment of hepatitis C," Nature. 2005.
B. E. Gilbert, P. R. Wyde, S. Z. Wilson, and R. K. Robin, "Aerosol and intraperitoneal administration of ribavirin and ribavirin triacetate: Pharmacokinetics and protection of mice against intracerebral infection with influenza A/WSN virus," Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 1991.
R. C. Tam, J. Y. N. Lau, and Z. Hong, "Mechanisms of action of ribavirin in antiviral therapies," Antiviral Chemistry and Chemotherapy. 2001.
M. P. de B~thune, "Non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NNRTIs), their discovery, development, and use in the treatment of HIV-1 infection: A review of the last 20 years (1989-2009), Antiviral Research. 2010.
Y. C. Cheng, “Potential use of antiviral L (−) nucleoside analogues for the prevention or treatment of viral associated cancers,” Cancer Letters, Volume 162, Supplement 1, 2001.
Y. C. Jiang, H. Feng, Y. C. Lin, and X. R. Guo, ‘‘New strategies against drug resistance to herpes simplex virus," International Journal of Oral Science. 2016.
J. W. Gnann, N. H. Barton, and R. J. Whitley, "Acyclovir: Mechanism of Action, Pharmacokinetics, Safety and Clinical Applications,” Pharmacother. J. Hum. Pharmacol. Drug Ther., 1983.
D. W. Kimberlin et al., "Safety and efficacy of high-dose intravenous acyclovir in the management of neonatal herpes simplex virus infections," Pediatrics, 2001.
L. Bocket, Y. Yazdanpanah, F. Ajana, Y. Gerard, N. Viget, A. Goffard, et al. "Thymidine analogue mutations in antiretroviral-naive HIV-I patients on triple therapy including either zidovudine or stavudine,"J. Antimicrob. Chemother., 2004.
N. Bhana, D. Ormrod, C. M. Perry, and D. P. Figgitt, “Zidovudine: A review of its use in the management of vertically-acquired pediatric HIV infection,” Pediatric Drugs. 2002.
H. Lin, M. V. Stankov, J. Hegermann, R. Budida, D. D. Panyotova, R. E. Schimidt, and G. M. N. Behrens, "Zidovudine-Mediated Autophagy Inhibition Enhances Mitochondrial Toxicity in Muscle Cells. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2018.
R. Sun, S. Eriksson, and L. Wang, “Zidovudine induces downregulation of mitochondrial deoxy nucleoside kinases: implications for mitochondrial toxicity of antiviral nucleoside analogs.” Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2014.
H. Cassim , K. Otwombe, E. Lazarus, A. Liberty, and G. E. Gray, “A retrospective case-cohort study comparing treatment outcomes in abacavir versus stavudine containing first line antiretroviral treatment regimens in children <3yrs old, at a pediatric programme based in Soweto, South Africa”. PLOS ONE 12(7): e0180645
L. K. Shipton, C. W. Wester, S. Stock, N. Ndwapi, T., I. Thior, A. Avalos, et al “Safety and efficacy of nevirapine- and efavirenz-based antiretroviral treatment in adults treated for TB-HIV co-infection in Botswana”. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2009.
A. Spaulding, G. W. Rutherford, and N. Siegfried, "Tenofovir or zidovudine in three-drug combination therapy with one nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor and one non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor for initial treatment of HIV infection in antiretroviral-naive individuals," Cochrane Database Syst. Rev., 2010.
A. Violari, F. C. Paed, C. Jane, Sc. D. Lindsey, D. Michael, et al., “Nevirapine versus Ritonavir-Boosted Lopinavir for HIV-Infected Children,” New. Eng. J. Medic. 2012.
D. A. Steinhauer, "Role of hemagglutinin cleavage for the pathogenicity of influenza virus,” Virology, 1999.
M. J. Makela et al., "Clinical efficacy and safety of the orally inhaled neuraminidase inhibitor zanamivir in the treatment of influenza: A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled European study," J. Infect., 2000.
S. Kashiwagi, S. Kudoh, A. Watanabe, and I. Yoshimura, “Clinical efficacy and safety of the selective oral neuraminidase inhibitor oseltamivir in treating acute influenza--placebo-controlled double-blind multicenter phase III trial," Kansenshogaku Zasshi., 2000.
N. S. Lurain and S. Chou, “Antiviral drug resistance of human cytomegalovirus," Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 2010.
D. D. Richman, “Antiviral drug resistance," Antiviral Research. 2006.
M. Lipsitch, T. Cohen, M. Murray, and B. R. Levin, "Antiviral resistance and the control of pandemic influenza," PLoS Med., 2007.
S. Adamson, "Antiviral agents: Discovery to resistance,” Viruses. 2020.
K. Rangasamy, A. Murugan, N. Devarajan, and J. A. Parray, "Emergence of multi drug resistance among soil bacteria exposing to insecticides," Microb. Pathog., 2017.
P. Agnew, C. Berticat, S. Bedhomme, C. Sidobre, and Y. Michalakis, "Parasitism increases and decreases the costs of insecticide resistance in mosquitoes," Evolution (N. Y). 2004.
A. J. Guseman, et al., "Multi-drug resistance transporters and a mechanism-based strategy for assessing risks of pesticide combinations to honey bees,” PLoS One, 2016.
M. Ishizuka et al., “Pesticide resistance in wild mammals- mechanisms of anticoagulant resistance in wild rodents,” Journal of Toxicological Sciences. 2008.
E. Domingo, L. Menendez-Arias, and J. J. Holland, “RNA virus fitness,” Reviews in Medical Virology.1997.
R. W. Shafer, "Genotypic testing for human immunodeficiency virus type 1 drug resistance,” Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 2002.
L. Doyon, G. Croteau, D. Thibeault, F. Poulin, L. Pilote, and D. Lamarre, “Second locus involved in human immunodeficiency virus type I resistance to protease inhibitors." J. Virol., 1996
R. Kuritzkes, “Drug resistance in HIV- I,” Current Opinion in Virology, 2011.